These ranges fall within and also exceed the Adequate Intake (AI) values (25 g/day for women and 35 g/day for men) established by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academics for Sciences Engineering and Medicine. Dietary intake alone of Cr(III) has been estimated to be within the range of 23-29 g/day and 39-54 g/day for women and men respectively. In 2016 chromium (III) supplements were ranked the fourth highest selling supplement in the USA, grossing 110 million dollars that year, only ranking behind calcium, magnesium, and iron.
The Council for Responsible Nutrition (CRN) published data from 2017 revealing that 170 million adults in the United States take some form of nutritional supplementation, be that a multivitamin, specialty supplement, herbals or botanicals, sports nutrition supplements, or weight management supplements. Chromium picolinate is the most prominent form of Cr(III) in nutritional supplementation because this form allows for optimal absorption. Predominant forms of chromium (III) that are taken as supplementation include chromium-picolinate, chromium-histidinate, chromium-dinicocysteinate, and niacin-bound chromium. Trivalent chromium (Cr(III))-containing compounds are components of many multivitamins, nutritional supplements, and even present in foods. This review describes the chemistry of two predominant Cr oxidative states that humans are exposed to, their activity at the cellular level, and major theories by which Cr exposure induces cellular toxicity and DNA damage, through the activation of oxidative stress pathways, direct DNA damage, and epigenetic gene expression changes. While it is well documented that exposure to chromium in the environment is pervasive, and that hexavalent chromium is a potent carcinogen, there are multiple mechanisms by which chromium exposure induces cellular damage and adverse health effects. Due to the inherent toxicity and carcinogenicity of chromium containing substances, US EPA and US OSHA have determined exposure limits of 100 g/ L of total chromium for drinking water standards and 5 g/m 3 of Cr(VI) timed weighted average for a normal work day. Trivalent chromium is found in the soil, but environmental conditions like natural oxidation can convert Cr(III) to Cr(VI) in this medium if for example if there are high levels of manganese in the soil or the soil is very alkaline in pH. The anthropogenic release of chromium into the environment caused population exposure to occur by inhalation of contaminated air, or ingestion of contaminated drinking water. It is estimated that workers in these industries have a two-fold higher exposure levels than the entire general population. These industrial processes are largely responsible for the release of Cr(VI) into the air. Industrial processes such as metal refining, chrome–plating, stainless-steel production, leather tanning, and chemical dye production all use chromium. By these means, Cr(III) can enter the food chain and is part of the human diet. Trivalent chromium has been found naturally in rocks and soil, and is readily taken up by plants. This transition metal has 7 oxidation states (0-VI), with the metallic (Cr(0)), trivalent (Cr(III)), and hexavalent (Cr(VI)) states being the most common and thus most prevalent states found in the environment and in industrial settings. Chromium (Cr) is a classified group 1 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and is pervasive throughout the environment. The dispersion of metals in the environment are of major concern to global human health.
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